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Alternatively referred to as hydrolases, the hydrolytic enzymes are used to split different groups of biomolecules, like esters, peptides, and glycosides. Moreover, hydrolytic enzymes can break down protein, lipids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and fat molecules to their simplest or smallest forms. Furthermore, lysosomal hydrolase comprises phosphatases, carboxylesterases, ribonuclease, glucuronidases, β-galactosidase, and acid proteinase. This hydrolytic enzyme is proven to play a crucial role in brain tumors. Hydrolytic enzymes are further categorized into the following: Glucoamylase Another kind of hydrolytic enzyme is glucoamylase. Also known as microbial enzymes, these exo-acting enzymes release consistent glucose units. Glucoamylase promotes the release of glucose from the starch molecules’ non-reducing ends. Moreover, this enzyme consecutively hydrolyzes α-1,4 glycosidic bonds, which results in glucose production. Furthermore, this enzyme can also hydrolyze the 1,6 bonds and give the same end-product – glucose. Protease Protease is the most common hydrolytic enzyme type used in various industries such as food, beverage, etc. In addition to it, proteases are also responsible for the reduction of molecules through hydrolysis. This enzyme hydrolyzes the peptide bonds (these bonds link amino acids to the protein chain). Protease is generally made of animals, plants, fungi, and bacteria. Cellulase Cellulase is a hydrolytic enzyme that is added to the pretreated material. This enzyme hydrolyzes the cellulose fraction into glucose. Cellulase enzymes are used to degrade the cellulose of plant cells. These enzymes are produced by bacterial and fungal species (at different temperatures, these bacteria or fungal species can be aerobic or anaerobic). Alpha-Amylase Alpha-amylase is one of the most widely used hydrolytic enzymes. It is used to degrade the starch molecules and further hydrolyze them into small-chain dextrins. Alpha amylase acts on the α-1,4 glycosidic bonds. These bonds are usually found in starch polysaccharides. All the living beings present on earth produce this enzyme. Lipase Lipase is another type of hydrolytic enzyme and acts as a catalyst in the hydrolysis of triglycerides (the substrate) to fatty acids and glycerol. Lipase is generally found in all living beings and begins the initial digestion in the small intestine’s lumen (interior). Furthermore, lipase is assisted by bile salts, which reduce the surface tension of fat droplets. Once the surface tension is reduced, lipases can attack the triglyceride molecules. Applications of Hydrolytic Enzymes Use of hydrolytic enzymes in the dairy industry The dairy industry is one of the most common uses of hydrolytic enzymes. Dairy manufacturing is highly dependent on hydrolytic enzymes. Hydrolytic enzymes impact dairy products, such as their texture, taste, etc. For instance, proteases are widely used as coagulant agents in cheese production, affecting the taste and texture of the cheese. On the other hand, lipases ripen the cheese and develop its flavor, texture, and body characteristics. Moreover, the bottlenecks caused by lactose in dairy products are overcome with the use of lactases, which hydrolyze lactose in dairy products and increase the availability of good nutrition. Cosmetics Made with Hydrolytic Enzymes Like any other enzyme, hydrolytic enzymes are used to speed up reactions; in other words, they are used as catalysts. These enzymes are also widely used in the cosmetic industry. Hydrolytic enzymes such as protease break skin-friendly proteins into peptides. These peptides are then broken down into amino acids, resulting in easy absorption by the skin and promoting cell growth and renewal. More at https://www.creative-enzymes.com/similar/glucoamylase_316.html

Metagenomics is the science that applies high-throughput sequencing technologies and bioinformatics tools to directly obtain the genetic content of a microbial community without the need to isolate and culture the individual microbial species. Metagenomics enables researchers not only to study the functional gene composition of microbial communities but also to conduct evolutionary research. Metagenomics has been used to identify novel biocatalysts or enzymes and generate novel hypotheses of microbial function, which is a powerful and practical tool. Compared to 16S/18S/ITS amplicon sequencing, metagenomics can provide more information about functional potential of microbial communities and whole-genome sequences. The rapid development and substantial cost decrease in high-throughput sequencing have dramatically promoted the development of shotgun metagenomic sequencing. This article gives an overview of metagenomics, from sampling to data analysis. A typical metagenomics project involves sample preparation, sequencing, and data analysis (including assembly, binning, annotation, statistical analysis, and data submission). Sample preparation Sample preparation generally involves two steps, sample collection and DNA extraction, both of which can affect the quality and accuracy of metagenomic experiments. Commercial kits are available for sample collection and DNA isolation. Its key objectives are to collect enough microbial biomass for sequencing and to minimize contamination. When working with low biomass samples, ultraclean reagents and “blank” sequencing controls should be used to minimize less “real” signals. Library preparation and sequencing Common high-throughput sequencing platforms include Illumina systems, Roche 454, Ion Torrent instruments, and PacBio SMRT systems. Next generation sequencing Frey et al. (2014) assessed the ability of three next generation sequencing (NGS) platforms (Illumina MiSeq, Roche 454 Titanium, and Ion Torrent PGM) to identify a low-titer pathogen (viral or bacterial) in a clinically relevant blood sample. They found that Ion Torrent PGM and Illumina platforms perform better in identification of scarce microbial species, and for bacterial samples, only the MiSeq platform could provide reads that were unambiguously classified as originating from Bacillus anthracis. The Illumina platform has become dominant for shotgun metagenomics sequencing due to its very high outputs (up to 1.5Tb per run), high accuracy (error rate of between 0.1-1%), and wide availability. Ion Torrent instruments and PacBio SMRT instruments are becoming tough competitors in the field. The Illumina platforms mainly differ in total output and maximum read length. The Illumina HiSeq 2500 (2x250 nt, 180 Gb output or 2x125 nt, 1Tb output) is a classical choice for metagenomics. Newer HiSeq 3000 and 4000 systems increase the throughput of a run but are limited to read length (150 nt). The MiSeq instruments only generate up to 15Gb in 2x300 mode but are still useful for single marker gene microbiome studies, or a limited number of samples. PacBio SMRT sequencing Pacific Biosciences (PacBio) instruments, based on single-molecule, real-time (SMRT) detection in zero-mode waveguide wells, provide much greater read lengths (average read lengths up to 30 kb) than NGS instruments. Short-read sequencing (i.e. NGS) has limited ability to assemble complex or low-coverage regions, while long-read metagenomic sequencing by PacBio SMRT sequencing is able to reconstruct a high-quality and closed genome of a previously uncharacterized microbial species from metagenomic samples. Data analysis Assembly If the research aims at obtaining full-length CDS or recovering microbial genomes, then assembly needs to be performed to generate longer genomic contigs. Assembly can be divided into two strategies: reference-based assembly and de novo assembly. Reference-based assembly is fast and accurate, if the metagenomic dataset includes sequences where closely related reference genomes are available. Reference-based assembly can be performed with software packages such as Newbler, AMOS, MIRA. De novo assembly requires larger computational resources. De Bruijin graph approach is the most popular metagenome de novo assembly method. If the research aims at taxonomic profiling, there is no need for assembly and binning. Assembly-free metagenomic profiling can mitigate assembly problems, and make it possible to identify low-abundance species that cannot be assembled de novo. The approach is limited because previously uncharacterized microorganisms are difficult to profile, but the number of reference genomes is increasing rapidly. Binning Metagenome assemblies are only fragmented contigs. We do not know which contig derives from which genome. We do not even know how many species there are. Binning is the process of grouping contigs into species. There are two strategies for binning, including compositional-based and similarity-based methods. Examples of compositional-based binning algorithms include S-GSOM, Phylopythia, PCAHIER, and TACAO. Similarity-based algorithms include IMG/M, MG-RAST, MEGAN, CARMA, SOrt-ITEMS, MetaWatt, SCIMM, and MetaPhyler. Some algorithms consider both composition and similarity, such as PhymmBL and MetaCluster. Annotation The annotation has two steps, gene identification and functional annotation. Databases that contain combinations of manually annotated and computationally predicted protein families, can be used for genes and metabolic pathways from metagenomes. More at our website.

MicrobioSeq is on behalf of the microbial genomics division of CD Genomics, headquartered in New York, USA. CD Genomics is a genomics service company with a renowned reputation for providing reliable sequencing, genotyping, microarray, and bioinformatics services. The company offers gene expression analysis services that identify phenotypic differences at the molecular level, provide insight into the role of differential gene expression in the microbial biological process, and facilitate the discovery of novel genes and mRNA isoforms. Microorganisms can be used as production strains or food ingredients as they are highly stable and functional under specific conditions. For example, probiotics need to resist gastric acid in the stomach and intestines. In order to ensure the consistent performance of microbial strains, it is necessary to investigate the gene of expression in the desired physiological environment. Microbial transcriptome sequencing technology is a single-bacteria research method that obtains transcript structure and expression information by sequencing single-colony microbial transcripts. Microorganisms will show differences in gene expression in specific habitats or periods in order to respond to environmental changes. Using the transcriptome sequencing technology, transcription information of a specific sample in a particular time and space can be effectively studied so as to identify key functional genes and solve unknowns regarding microbial functions. Meanwhile, metatranscriptomics analyzes and measures the expression of multiple genes and functions simultaneously by detecting and quantifying mRNA transcripts. Metatranscriptomics explores the functional diversity of microbial communities in different habitats and examines microbial responses to changing environments, thus elucidating the structural and functional diversity of specific microbial communities. In addition, CD Genomics applies RNA-seq methods to detect, quantify, and compare mRNA transcript levels of a microbial strain under various conditions. “We offer both microbial RNA-Seq based on NGS and full-length, direct RNA sequencing based on the PacBio or Oxford Nanopore platforms for gene expression analysis. We are capable of providing professional services on microbial genomics with our years of experience in microbial identification, diversity analysis, and characterization,” commented the chief scientist of CD Genomics. Through the years, CD Genomics has become a leading provider of microbiology solutions to research institutions and biological companies. Equipped with platforms such as Illumina Hiseq/Miseq, PacBio Sequel, Oxford MinIONTM, Oxford GridIONTM, PCR-DGGE (PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis), real-time qPCR, and cloning libraries, CD Genomics is committed to ensuring accurate and thorough microbiological analysis as well as complex bioinformatics analysis pipelines through standardized laboratory methods based on these platforms. About the MicrobioSeq Division of CD Genomics MicrobioSeq is the microbial genomics division of CD Genomics, which is a genomics service company with a good reputation for providing reliable microbial sampling products, microbial testing services, microbial genomics services, and integrated bioinformatics services.

Earlier this month, Alfa Chemistry announced the launch of acylation reagents, a type of derivatization reagents frequently used in Gas Chromatography (GC) analysis, and other instrumental analytical scenarios. In order to bring out the best chromatographic analysis effect, sample compounds need to meet a few criteria, for instance, high-temperature resistance and rapid transformation into the vapor state without degradation. However, if these criteria are not met, derivatization reagents generally undergo chemical modifications that rearrange or transform the original compounds, thus affording new compounds suitable for GC analysis. In most cases, derivatization serves as a procedural technique to escalate the volatility, selectivity, stability, and detectability of samples. There are varieties of derivatization reagents, including alkylation reagents, silylation reagents, acylation reagents, fluorescent derivatization reagents, ultraviolet derivatization reagents, hydroxyl derivatization reagents, chiral derivatization reagents, amino derivatization reagents and the like. Among them, acylation reagents are of vital importance for derivatization procedures, as many compounds of interest consist of the amine and/or hydroxy groups. “Acylation can enhance the GC analytical performance due to increased analyte volatility. Acylation can also reduce the polarity of a molecule, making it more retentive in the reversed-phase HPLC applications,” said one of the senior scientists from Alfa Chemistry. Acid anhydrides, acid halides, and reactive acyl derivatives are the three types of acylation reagents that are most commonly used in acylation reactions for chromatography, with unique characterizations and applications. Currently, Alfa Chemistry provides the following acylation reagents that customers can reach out to for their varied research purposes. 2,2,6,6-Tetramethyl-3,5-heptanedione (CAS 1118-71-4), 1-(Trifluoroacetyl)imidazole (CAS 1546-79-8), 6,6,7,7,8,8,8-Heptafluoro-2,2-dimethyl-3,5-octanedione (CAS 17587-22-3), N-Heptafluorobutyrylimidazole (CAS 32477-35-3), Methyl trifluoromethanesulfonate (CAS 333-27-7), Heptafluorobutyric anhydride (CAS 336-59-4), Pentafluoropropionic anhydride (CAS 356-42-3), Ethyl trifluoromethanesulfonate (CAS 425-75-2), Butylboronic acid (CAS 4426-47-5), N-Methyl-bis(trifluoroacetamide) (CAS 685-27-8), N-Methyl-bis-heptafluorobutyramide (CAS 73980-71-9), (±)-α-Methoxy-α-trifluoromethylphenylacetic acid (CAS 81655-41-6), 4-Bromophenacyl trifluoromethanesulfonate (CAS 93128-04-2), etc. “Ideally, a successful derivatization procedure should afford compounds that are readily distinguishable from starting materials and make sure that over 95 percent of the sample is derivatized.” The scientist further added. Please visit our website to learn more. About Aiming high, Alfa Chemistry has become an established brand for troubleshooting challenges and difficulties arising from the analytical testing industry. The company is dedicated to the supply of a comprehensive range of reliable, high-purity reagents and standards for both manufacturers and analytical testing laboratories worldwide.

Alfa Chemistry, the US-located material supplier, recently announced the launch of a new product line, ion exchange resins, for individual scientists, labs, and organizations worldwide. These newly released ion exchange resins cover various categories, including but not limited to: adsorbent resin, catalyst resin, chelating resin, chromatographic media, color changing resin, inert resin, mixed bed resin, powder resin, radioactive treatment resin, strong acid cation resin, strong base anion resin, weak acid cation resin, weak base anion resin, and other special resins. “As versatile materials that possess modulable frameworks based on cross-linked copolymers, ion exchange resins reserve functional groups to attract ions of opposite charges and thus are broadly utilized in the separation application, also known as the ion exchange chromatography,” said the Marketing Chief of Alfa Chemistry. “In the research community, a large number of literature is centered on the preparation, investigation, and application of ion exchange resins.” Ion exchange resins play different roles according to chemical occasions. For instance, in separation and purification applications, resins can be used as separating and concentrating agents of active ingredients; in organic synthesis applications, especially esterification and hydrolysis reactions, resins can be used as efficient catalysts; in chemical analysis applications, resins can be used for the analysis and identification of trace metals. In addition, the application fields of ion exchange resins continue to expand, covering water treatment, environmental remediation, hydrometallurgy, chromatography, biomolecular separation, etc. As light and porous solids, ion exchange resins are usually present in the form of white or yellow porous microbeads, membranes, or granules. Some of the ion exchange resins provided by Alfa Chemistry are listed below: Adsorbent resin for adsorption of phenolic aromatic compound Adsorbent resin for antibiotic extraction Catalyst resin for aromatic alkylation Catalyst resin for polyvalent metal ion Chelating resin for alkaline earth metal Chelating resin for fluorine Chromatographic media for recycling of spent acid Color changing resins, anion, red (regenerated) to blue (exhausted) For each type of ion exchange resin, a couple of chemicals are available to choose from based on parameters like polymer type, moisture content, swelling rate, effective size, and ionic form. Please visit the website https://ionresins.alfa-chemistry.com/ion-exchange-resins.html to learn more. About Alfa Chemistry Ion exchange resins are polymers used in research and industrial applications as a medium for ion exchange. Staffed with a professional research team, Alfa Chemistry pride itself in supplying a comprehensive range of ion exchange products for customers across the globe. Moreover, with advanced technology and equipment, Alfa Chemistry is also a supportive partner for resin analysis, customized services, process development, optimization, design, etc.